Critical incident technique

Critical incident technique (CIT) is a qualitative research method used to collect and analyze observations of human behavior in specific situations. American psychologist John C. Flanagan formally introduced the technique in a 1954 paper published in the Psychological Bulletin^[1]. The method focuses on identifying behaviors that contribute to success or failure in particular activities, making it valuable for job analysis, training development, and performance evaluation.

Historical development

The foundations for CIT were laid by Sir Francis Galton's studies on human abilities and individual differences. However, the technique took its modern form through Flanagan's work during World War II. As part of the Aviation Psychology Program of the United States Army Air Forces, Flanagan conducted research to differentiate effective and ineffective pilot behaviors^[2].

Early CIT studies addressed military problems including combat leadership, pilot disorientation, and bombing raid failures. The research supported pilot selection and training programs. After the war, Flanagan founded the American Institutes for Research in 1946, where he continued developing and applying the technique across various fields.

Flanagan's 1954 article defined CIT as "a set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles." This definition has remained largely unchanged for over six decades.

Five-step methodology

Flanagan outlined a systematic process consisting of five main steps:

Determining the general aim - The researcher first defines the activity under study and establishes its objective. This step involves creating a brief, clear "functional description" that indicates what the activity is meant to accomplish. A well-defined aim guides the entire research process and shapes how findings are later presented.

Setting plans and specifications - Precise instructions are given to observers to ensure consistent data collection. Flanagan specified four areas requiring decisions: defining the types of situations to observe, determining relevance to the general aim, understanding the extent of impact incidents have on the aim, and deciding who will make observations.

Collecting data - Data collection can occur through expert observation of people performing tasks or through retrospective accounts of past incidents. Flanagan identified four methods for gathering recalled incidents: individual interviews, group interviews, questionnaires, and record forms. While he preferred expert observers, practical constraints often necessitate retrospective methods.

Analyzing data - Many researchers consider this the most challenging step. With potentially hundreds of incidents to process, the researcher must create a categorization scheme that summarizes and describes the data usefully. Similar incidents are grouped into categories that emerge from the data itself.

Interpreting and reporting results - The final step involves drawing conclusions and presenting findings. Researchers identify patterns in the categorized incidents and develop recommendations based on observed behaviors that contributed to success or failure.

Applications in various fields

CIT has spread across numerous disciplines since 1954. In psychology and counseling, researchers use the technique to identify effective therapeutic interventions. Management scholars apply it to understand leadership behaviors and organizational dynamics. Educational researchers study teaching effectiveness through critical incident analysis.

Service research has particularly embraced CIT. Studies of customer satisfaction often collect critical incidents describing exceptionally positive or negative service encounters. This approach reveals specific behaviors that shape customer perceptions rather than relying on abstract satisfaction ratings.

Human resource professionals use CIT for job analysis and competency identification. By collecting incidents of effective and ineffective performance, organizations can develop targeted training programs and selection criteria.

Strengths of the method

CIT focuses on actual behaviors rather than abstract opinions. Respondents describe specific events they experienced or observed, grounding the research in concrete reality. This behavioral focus makes findings directly applicable to practical interventions.

The method captures both positive and negative examples. Unlike complaint-focused research, CIT deliberately seeks incidents of success alongside failure. This balanced approach reveals what works well, not just what needs fixing.

Relatively few modifications have been suggested to the original method in over sixty years. This stability indicates reasonable robustness. Flanagan's framework has proven adaptable to diverse contexts while maintaining methodological consistency.

Limitations and considerations

Memory distortion affects retrospective incident reports. Respondents may remember events inaccurately, especially those occurring long ago. Researchers must consider the time elapsed between incidents and their reporting.

The focus on extreme incidents may miss gradual patterns. CIT captures memorable highs and lows but might overlook moderate behaviors that cumulatively affect outcomes. Supplementary methods may be needed for a complete picture.

Categorization involves researcher judgment. Different analysts might group the same incidents differently. Establishing inter-rater reliability helps address this concern but adds complexity to the research process.

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References

• Butterfield, L.D., Borgen, W.A., Amundson, N.E. & Maglio, A.T. (2005). Fifty years of the critical incident technique: 1954-2004 and beyond. Qualitative Research, 5(4), 475-497.
• Chell, E. (1998). Critical incident technique. In G. Symon & C. Cassell (Eds.), Qualitative Methods and Analysis in Organizational Research. Sage Publications.
• Flanagan, J.C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4), 327-358.
• Gremler, D.D. (2004). The critical incident technique in service research. Journal of Service Research, 7(1), 65-89.

Footnotes

<references> <ref name="fn1">[1] Flanagan, J.C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4), 327-358</ref> <ref name="fn2">[2] Flanagan conducted CIT research during WWII as part of the Aviation Psychology Program</ref> </references>