Motivation theory

Motivation theory encompasses the psychological frameworks explaining what drives human behavior, particularly the internal and external factors that stimulate desire, energy, and commitment to pursue goals and perform tasks (Steers R.M., Porter L.W. 1991, p.5)^[1]. Why does one employee stay late finishing projects while another watches the clock? Why do some people pursue difficult goals while others avoid challenge? Motivation theory attempts to answer these questions, and the answers matter enormously for managers trying to get the best from their teams.

The field evolved through distinct eras. Early theories in the 1940s and 1950s—Maslow's hierarchy, Herzberg's two-factor theory—focused on what motivates people, identifying needs and satisfiers. Later theories—expectancy, goal-setting, self-determination—shifted to how motivation works, examining cognitive processes and mechanisms. Contemporary research integrates these perspectives while acknowledging that motivation is far more complex and contextual than any single theory captures.

Content theories

These theories identify what motivates people:

Maslow's hierarchy

Need levels. Abraham Maslow proposed that human needs form a hierarchy: physiological (food, water), safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Lower needs must be substantially satisfied before higher needs become motivating^[2].

Workplace application. Competitive salary addresses physiological and safety needs. Team belonging and recognition address social and esteem needs. Challenging work addresses self-actualization.

Criticism. Research provides limited support for the rigid hierarchy. People may pursue higher needs while lower needs remain unmet.

Herzberg's two-factor theory

Dual factors. Frederick Herzberg distinguished hygiene factors (salary, working conditions, supervision) that prevent dissatisfaction from motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility) that create satisfaction^[3].

Implication. Improving hygiene factors reduces complaints but doesn't motivate. True motivation requires the motivators themselves.

Criticism. The method used—asking people to recall satisfying and dissatisfying experiences—may have produced the results rather than reflecting underlying reality.

McClelland's needs

Acquired needs. David McClelland identified three learned needs: achievement (desire to excel), affiliation (desire for relationships), and power (desire to influence others).

Individual differences. People vary in the strength of these needs, affecting career choices and management styles.

Process theories

These theories explain how motivation works:

Expectancy theory

Cognitive calculation. Victor Vroom proposed that motivation equals expectancy (belief that effort leads to performance) times instrumentality (belief that performance leads to outcomes) times valence (value placed on outcomes)^[4].

Implication. All three factors must be positive. If employees doubt their effort will improve performance, or that performance will bring rewards, or they don't value the rewards offered, motivation suffers.

Goal-setting theory

Specific, difficult goals. Edwin Locke and Gary Latham demonstrated that specific, challenging goals—with feedback—produce higher performance than vague goals like "do your best."

Mechanism. Goals direct attention, energize effort, encourage persistence, and stimulate strategy development^[5].

Conditions. Goal commitment, self-efficacy, and task complexity moderate goal effects.

Equity theory

Fairness comparison. J. Stacy Adams proposed that people compare their input-outcome ratios to others'. Perceived inequity creates tension that motivates corrective action.

Responses to inequity. Underpaid employees may reduce effort, demand raises, or quit. Overpaid employees (rarely) may increase effort or rationalize their advantage.

Self-determination theory

Intrinsic motivation. Edward Deci and Richard Ryan distinguished intrinsic motivation (doing something for its inherent interest) from extrinsic motivation (doing something for external rewards)^[6].

Basic needs. Three psychological needs—autonomy (control over actions), competence (feeling effective), and relatedness (connection with others)—support intrinsic motivation.

Undermining effects. External rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation by reducing feelings of autonomy. People who loved a task may lose interest when paid for it.

Intrinsic versus extrinsic

The distinction matters:

Intrinsic motivation. Sustained, self-directed, associated with creativity and deep engagement. People intrinsically motivated don't need monitoring.

Extrinsic motivation. Requires ongoing external reinforcement. May produce compliance without commitment^[7].

Practical balance. Most work involves both. The challenge is using extrinsic rewards without destroying intrinsic interest.

Workplace application

Translating theory to practice:

Design motivating jobs. Provide autonomy, variety, significance, feedback, and opportunity to use skills.

Set clear goals. Specific, challenging objectives with feedback outperform vague directives^[8].

Ensure equity. Perceived fairness in rewards, treatment, and procedures affects motivation.

Match rewards to values. What motivates varies by individual. Some want recognition; others want flexibility; still others want advancement.

Motivation theory — recommended articles

Employee motivation — Organizational behavior — Human resources management — Leadership

References

• Steers R.M., Porter L.W. (1991), Motivation and Work Behavior, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill.
• Maslow A.H. (1943), A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review, 50(4), pp.370-396.
• Locke E.A., Latham G.P. (2002), Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation, American Psychologist, 57(9), pp.705-717.
• Deci E.L., Ryan R.M. (2000), Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, American Psychologist, 55(1), pp.68-78.

Footnotes

1. ↑ Steers R.M., Porter L.W. (1991), Motivation and Work Behavior, p.5
2. ↑ Maslow A.H. (1943), Theory of Human Motivation, pp.375-382
3. ↑ Steers R.M., Porter L.W. (1991), Motivation and Work Behavior, pp.89-104
4. ↑ Locke E.A., Latham G.P. (2002), Goal Setting Theory, pp.708-712
5. ↑ Deci E.L., Ryan R.M. (2000), Self-Determination Theory, pp.70-74
6. ↑ Steers R.M., Porter L.W. (1991), Motivation and Work Behavior, pp.156-172
7. ↑ Locke E.A., Latham G.P. (2002), Goal Setting Theory, pp.714-716
8. ↑ Deci E.L., Ryan R.M. (2000), Self-Determination Theory, pp.75-77

Author: Sławomir Wawak